Introduction

Land Reform refers to efforts to reform the ownership and regulation of land in India.

Goals

Land title formalisation has been part of India’s state policy from the very beginning. Independent India’s most revolutionary land policy was perhaps the abolition of the Zamindari system (feudal land holding practices). Land-reform policy in India had two specific objectives: "The first is to remove such impediments to increase in agricultural production as arise from the agrarian structure inherited from the past…The second object, which is closely related to the first, is to eliminate all elements of exploitation and social injustice within the agrarian system, to provide security for the tiller of soil and assure equality of status and opportunity to all sections of the rural population.”

There are four main categories of reforms
1> Abolition of intermediaries (rent collectors under the pre-Independence land revenue system);
2> Tenancy regulation (to improve the contractual terms including security of tenure);
3> A ceiling on landholdings (to redistributing surplus land to the landless);
4> Attempts to consolidate disparate landholdings

To realise the objectives of the land reforms, the government took three main steps which had many internal sub-steps

1. Abolition of Intermediaries

Under this step, the age-old exploitative land tenure systems of the Zamindari, Mahalwari and Ryotwari were fully abolished.

2. Tenancy Reforms

Under this broader step, three inter-related reforms protecting the land-tenants were effected:
(i) Regulation of rent so that a fixed and rational rate of rent could be paid by the share-croppers to the land owners;
(ii) Security of tenure so that a share-cropper could be feel secure about his future income and his economic security; and
(iii) Ownership rights to tenants so that the landless masses (i.e., the tenants, the share-croppers) could get the final rights for the land they plough- "land to the tillers'

3. Reorganisation of Agriculture

This step again has many inter-related and highly logical provisions in the direction of rational agrarian reforms:
(i) Redistribution o fland among the landless poor masses after promulgating timely ceiling laws-the move failed badly with few exceptions, such as West Bengal, Kerala and partially in Andhra Pradesh.
(ii) Consolidation of land could only succeed in the regions of the Green Revolution (i.e., Haryana, Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh) and remained marred with many loopholes and corruption
(iii) Cooperative farming, which has a high socio-economic moral base, was only used by the big farmers to save their lands from the draconian ceiling laws

Reasons for Failure of Land Reforms

Out of many reasons forwarded by the experts responsible for the failure of the land reforms in India, the following three could be considered the most important ones:
(i) Land in India is considered a symbol of social prestige, status and identity unlike the other economies which succeeded in their land reform programmes where it is seen as just an economic asset for income- earning.
(ii) Lack of political will which was required to affect land reforms and make it a successful programme.
(iii) Rampant corruption in public life, political hypocric y and leadership failure in the Indian democratic system.

Green Revolution in India

The Green Revolution in India was a period when agriculture in India increased due to improved method & technology. The Green Revolution allowed developing countries, like India, to overcome poor agricultural productivity. It started in India in the early 1960s and led to an increase in food grain production, especially in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh during the early phase. The main development was higher-yielding varieties of wheat, which were developed by many scientists, including Indian geneticist M. S. Swaminathan, American agronomist Dr. Norman Borlaug, and others.

The introduction of high-yielding varieties(HYV) of seeds and the increased quality of fertilizers and irrigation technique led to the increase in production to make the country self-sufficient in food grains, thus improving agriculture in India.The methods adopted included the use of high-yielding varieties (HYVs) of seeds with modern farming methods.
The production of wheat has produced the best results in fueling self-sufficiency of India. Along with high-yielding seeds and irrigation facilities, the enthusiasm of farmers mobilised the idea of agricultural revolution

12 Important Components of Green Revolution in India

1. High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds.
2. Irrigation (a) surface and (b) ground.
3. Use of fertilizers (chemical).
4. Use of Insecticides and Pesticides.
5. Command Area Development (CAD).
6. Consolidation of holdings.
7. Land reforms.
8. Supply of agricultural credit.
9. Rural electrification.
10. Rural Roads and Marketing.
11. Farm Mechanisation.
12. Agricultural Universities.

1. High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of seeds

According to R.N. Chopra, “The high yielding variety seeds are major input of agricultural production under the Green Revolution technology. Their main characteristic is increased responsiveness to chemical fertilizers, their period of maturing is short, it helps double cropping; their short stems can easily carry fertilizer load, resist wind damage, their large leaf surface helps the process of photosynthesis.”

According to Sunil Kumar Munsi, The H1* V seeds were perhaps the single most important input in the Indian Green Revolution. All other inputs were linked with HYV.” M.S. Swaminathan has remarked that apart from erasing the ‘begging bowl’ image of our country, the most important gain has been the saving of forests and land, thanks to the productivity improvement associated with high yielding varieties.

The development of HYV seeds of wheat in 1960s and those of rice in 1969-70 laid the foundation for Green Revolution in India. Bandhu Das Sen has rightly remarked that they play the role of modernisers of agriculture like engines of change, capable of transforming a traditional farmer into a commercial producer. They act as part of steam engine (for industrial revolution) to ignite an agrarian revolution in poor countries.

Thus the HYV programme brought about a major change—a transformation affecting almost every aspect of Indian agriculture. In words of Dantwala, “widespread adoption of HYVs has helped to step up cereal production, stimulated investment and substantially increased the use of modem inputs.”

The Pearson Commission Report hailed it as one of the authentic marvels of our time. It’s most important effect was to be seen in the attainment of self-sufficiency in cereals, which enabled us to have a break from the snip-to-mouth situation and move forward ahead of population.

National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was established in 1963. It undertakes the production of breeder seeds on its own farms and foundation and certified/quality seeds through contract growers, agricultural universities, state seeds corporations and state farms corporation of India.

Certified seed is t e ultimate stage in seed production chain and is the progeny of foundation seed. National Seeds Programme was launched in 1977 in collaboration with World Bank covering 9 states of Punjab, aryana, U.P., Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan. The production’ distribution and utilization of quality seeds has been increasing since the beginning of Green Revolution.

2. Irrigation

Irrigation is the second most important component of Green Revolution technology after HYV seeds. Assured and regular supply of sufficient water to crops not only adds to production it also assures stability in production. Indian rainfall being unreliable, irregular and seasonal, there is urgent need to expand irrigation potential to meet the requirements of the Green Revolution strategy Irrigation is a precondition for successful introduction of HYV seeds even in areas of heavy rainfall.

The success m use of HYV seeds lies in availability of water at the right time and in the right quantity tor which B.B. Vohra had laid more emphasis on ground water rather than on surface water. The ground water gives the advantage of push-button irrigation, made possible by a pump set or a tube well and is completely under farmer’s own control.

Appreciating the role of ground water in the success of Green Revolution, Vohra has preferred to call it the Ground Water Revolution. However, there is senous threat of depletion of ground water due to over-exploitation when the rate of drawal of ground water is higher than the rate at which it is replenished. In many districts of Haryana and Punjab the ground water exploitation is very high.

3. Use of Fertilizers (Chemical)

The use of chemical fertilizers has been the third most important input of Green Revolution after HYV seeds and irrigation; rather the three are tied together. In tact use of HYV seeds needs heavy dose of irrigation and fertilizers to give high yields.

Since the entire culturable land has already been brought under plough and there is practically no scope for ringing any new areas under cultivation, further increase in food-grains production can be achieved only by multiple-cropping which heavily leans on the trio of the basic inputs, viz. HYV seeds irrigation and chemical fertilizers.

Generally the use of chemical fertilizers is made according to the soil properties. Soil testing is very essential to know the nutrient status of the soil. As a normal practice, it is suggested that NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potasium) should be used in the ratio of 4: 2: 1 but it depends upon the quality and requirement of the soil and differs from place to place.

To encourage balanced fertilizer use and make fertilizers available to farmers at affordable prices, t e Central Government determines and notifies the selling price of urea as well as decontrolled P&K fertilizers. The current selling prices of urea and P&K fertilizers are less than the cost of production the difference between the selling price and the cost of production as assessed by the Government is’ borne as subsidy.

Although the use of fertilizers has considerably increased over the years, this increase is more prominent in areas where Green Revolution has shown its impact. In 1970, southern India was leading in consumption of fertilizers, but later on northern India, particularly, Punjab, followed by Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, became the main consumers.

In the decade between 1971-72 to 1981-82, consumption in Punjab increased by about three times from 2, 90,000 tonnes to 8, 20,000 tonnes. In Uttar Pradesh, the biggest consumer because of its large size, the increase in the same period was less than 3 times.

4. Use of Insecticides and Pesticides

Though intensive use of irrigation and fertilizers under the Green Revolution technology has increased the farm production, it has also given birth to the problem of pests, insects, weeds, rodents, etc. The monoculture promoted by the Green Revolution technology is more vulnerable to the insects and pests.

These pets, weeds and diseases are to be checked by proper doses of insecticides, pesticides and weedicides surveillance should be an integral crop production. The first of Agriculture (1983-84), over million hectares of cropped area in the country is affected by various pests and diseases, taking an annual toll of 5 to 25 per cent of the agricultural production.

There has been a tremendous increase in the use of different types of biocides and in the area under plant protection. The regional distribution makes it clear that areas with Green Revolution technology are the main consumers of pesticides.

For example, Punjab, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu consumed over 55 per cent of the country’s pesticides in 2003-04.

5. Command Area Development (CAD)

Command Area Development Programme is a centrally sponsored scheme which was launched in January 1975. Its aim was to bridge the gap between potential created and utilized in selected major/medium irrigation projects of the country for optimising agricultural production from the irrigated land. The programme covers the following components:

(i) On-farm development (OFD) works which include soil surveys, land shaping, construction of field channels, field drains, farm roads, realignment of field boundaries (where possible consolidation of holdings should also be combined), introduction of warabandi to ensure equitable and assured supply of water to each and every farm holding, supply of all inputs and services including credit and strengthening of extension services.

(ii) Selection and introduction of suitable cropping pattern

(iii) Development of groundwater to supplement surface water.

(iv) Development and maintenance of the main and intermediate drainage system

(v) Modernisation, maintenance and efficient operation of the irrigation system upon the outlet of one cusec capacity

The restructured programme which started from April 2004 is aimed at bringing about better water management practices and efficient utilisation of irrigation water which, inter-alia includes taking up corrective measures for rectification of deficiencies of delivery systems on the one hand and participation of water users in sharing the cost of works on the other. The Programme would cover 133 project commands with total Culturable Command Area of 1.7 million hectares. The work is already in progress

6. Consolidation of Holdings

Small and fragmented land holdings have been one of the main obstacles in the progress of agriculture in India. Consolidation of holdings has been introduced to solve this problem.

7. Land Reforms

Immediately after the Independence, it was felt that land reforms must be brought in to improve the agricultural situation in the country. Absentee landlordism, tenancy-at-will and share cropping could not help in inculcating interest among the farmers to make investments in farm inputs and adopt new farm technology.

In 1947 half of India was under Zamindari System in which 80 per cent of the land was in the hands of the absentee landlords. The Zamindar used to exploit the farmers who used to till the land. Soon after Independence, the slogan of land to the tiller was raised and steps were taken for the abolition of the Zamindari. Consequently, tenants became owners of land.

They started taking interest and pains to increase the farm production. Raitwari system prevailed in Madras, Bombay, Assam and Punjab. Under this system the peasant was the owner of land and paid rent directly to the Government. The rent was usually half of the net produce.

A fixed amount of rent was to be paid irrespective of the condition of the crops. In the event of crop failure the peasant was obliged to pay rent by incurring debt against mortgage. Ultimately the land passed into the hands of the money lender who had no real interest in cultivation.

Mahotwari was another system in which a chosen peasant (Lambardar) was responsible for depositing the rent varying from 40 to 70 per cent of the produce. These systems were to be abolished in the interest of better agricultural performance. Another measure taken by the government was the enforcement of land ceiling act.

Under this act a farmer cannot own more land than the ceiling limits. This resulted in the redistribution of surplus land which proved beneficial to lakhs of landless farmers. After obtaining the ownership rights, farmers worked whole-heartedly on their farms and this led to a tremendous increase in agricultural production. Dr. Randhawa has beautifully summed up the benefits of land reforms. According to him, A stable and restructured rural base with an equitable tenurial system paved the way to Green Revolution and can be accredited with its blooming to the present stage.”

8. Supply of Agricultural Credit

In the words of R.N. Chopra Credit is the most crucial input in all agricultural developmental programmes. The other inputs viz., technology, HYV seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation water and machinery—all depend on the availability of credit.

A large percentage of Indian farming community consists of small and marginal farmers who do not have their own resources to invest in agriculture. They depend upon agricultural credit to carry on most of their agricultural operations.

Earlier they used to get loan from the moneylender who used to charge very high rate of interest. Now Cooperatives, Commercial Banks and Regional Rural Banks extend loans to farmers on easy terms.

9. Rural Electrification

Rural electrification is one of the essential inputs in modem agricultural system. Studies made in 1970 showed the electricity makes a significant contribution to development of agriculture. It is a cheap source of energy which can be used for lifting water by tubewells/pumpsets, processing and preserving agricultural produce, sprinkler irrigation and so many other farm operations. The development of ground water, so vital for Green Revolution, requires uninterruped supply of electricity at cheaper rates.

Realising the importance of electricity for the proper growth and development of agriculture, a massive programme of rural electrification was taken up immediately after Independence. At the time of Independence only 1,300 villages had been electrified and only 6,400 energised pump sets were working in the entire country.

At the end of the Fourth Five year Plan about 1, 55,297 villages had been electrified and there were 24 lakh pumpsets. Up to the end of the Seventh Five Year Plan 4, 70,836 villages were electrified and 83, 58,363 pump-sets had been energised. As on 31 March, 2004,4,73,892 villages out of a total of 5, 87,556 villages (i.e. 86.25 per cent of the total villages) had been electrified and about 1, 40, 02,634 pump sets had been energised.

Haryana was the first state to electrify all its 6759 villages in 1970. Punjab, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, J and K, Maharashtra and Nagaland have 97 to 100 per cent villages electrified.

10. Rural Roads and Marketing

They constitute an important segment of infrastructure to improve agricultural productivity under the Green Revolution programme.

Rural roads are very essential for connecting the villages to the neighbouring markets and villages. Unfortunately, there is still a big gap between the requirement and availability of village roads. Road network upto town level is fairly satisfactory. The weakest point is that of rural roads.

Marketing is essential for progressive agriculture. Regulated markets enable the farmer to sell his agricultural produce and to purchase farm implements and tools, fertilizers, pesticides and other agricultural inputs as well as goods of everyday use. The farmer can go to the market with his produce, sell it and on his return journey he can bring the goods required for agriculture or in everyday life.

In this way the farmer can save on his return transport and avoid unnecessary waste of time, energy and money. Ideally speaking the market place should be within a distance of 5 km from the village. In the words of Leo E. Holman, “Marketing is the part and parcel of a modern productive process, the part at the end that gives point and purpose to all that had gone before. Benefits from mechanisation can be minimised if corresponding improvements are not made in the marketing system.”

11. Farm Mechanisation

Much success of The Green Revolution depends upon farm mechani­sation. Mechanisation saves a lot of human labour and quickens the farm operations, thereby adding to the farm efficiency and productivity.

12. Agricultural Universities

Agricultural universities and other agricultural institutes are primarily engaged in agricultural research and passing on the research findings to the farmers. A good deal of research and extension work done by these universities has paid rich dividends in the agricultural field. Success of Green Revolution largely depends upon the work done by these universities. Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, are the best examples of such a progress.

Impact of the Green Revolution

I. Socio-economic Impact
II. Ecological Impact

1. Increase in Agricultural Production

The first major direct effect of the green revolution has been the sharp increase in agricultural production. As a result of new agricultural strategy, food grains output increased substantially.
So far as food grains are concerned, wheat seems to have made rapid strides with its production increasing from 11.1 million tons in the Third Plan (annual average) 63 million tons in 1995-96
In the second phase, the revolution has spread to other crops. Most of the important crops registered a sizable increase during the seventies.

2. Increase in Productivity

The productivity of agriculture, as measured in terms of yield per hectare, has increased.

3. Impact on Employment

Capital-intensive techniques of the new agricultural strategy are supposed to be also at the same time labor-intensive. This new technology is characterized by frequent application of water, fertilizers, insecticides, double cropping, larger volumes of transportation, Marketing and food-processing. This will lead to increased employment and increased income among the agricultural laborers and small farmers.

4. Dependence on the Industrial Sector

An important aspect of the new agricultural strategy is the stress it lays, on making agriculture dependent on industries for its inputs. The traditional Indian agriculture was self-sufficient in the matter of its input requirements. But the new strategy attaches great importance of industrial products as agricultural inputs. As domestic investments always involve a great deal of foreign participation, the new strategy involves encouraging a direct role of the multinationals in agricultural development.

5.Impact on Agrarian Structure

One aspect of the new strategy would make the agrarian structure dualistic. It would consist of a prosperous, production-oriented, profit ­oriented and technology-oriented, thin crust of big farms and a great mass of small farmers that would lag behind in matters of production, profit and technology. The thin crust of big farms would swallow up the greater part of the resources that would be allocated by the state for the agricultural sector.

6. Impact on Landless Labor

In the green revolution areas, there has been a marked increase in demand for wage-labor particularly at the peak period. As a result of increased demand for labor, the position of labor in the market will improve and they will fight against economic and social oppression

II . Ecological Impact

The Green Revolution has been a failure as far as ecology is concerned. It has led to reduced genetic diversity. increased vulnerability to pests, soil erosion, water shortage, reduced soil fertility, micro nutrient defiies and soil contamination

1) The Myth of High Yields

The term ‘high yielding varieties’ is a wrong name or word, because it implies that the new seeds are high yielding of themselves but actually they are highly responsive to certain key inputs such as fertilizers and water, the new seeds perform worse than the indigenous varieties.
Increasing the nitrogen uptake plants by using artificial fertilizers upsets their carbon/nitrogen balance causing mata bolic problems to which the plant reacts by taking up extra water.

2. Loss of Diversity

Diversity is a central principle of traditional agriculture in the Punjab, a in the rest of India,. Such diversity contributed to ecological stability, and hence to ecosystem productivity. The lower the diversity in an ecosystem, the higher its vulnerability to pests and deasease.
The Green Revolution has reduced genetic diversity at two levels. First, it replaced mixtures and rotations of crops like wheat, maize, milles, pulses and oil seeds which mono cultures of wheat and rice. Second, the introduced wheat and rice varieties came from a very narrow genetic base. On this narrow and alien genetic base the food supplies of millions are precariously perched.

3. Increased Pesticide use

Because of their narrow genetic base, HYVs are inherently vulnerable to major pests and disease. As the Central Rice Research Institute, in Cuttack, concludes regarding rice, the ‘high yielding varieties’ are susceptible to major pests with a crop loss of 30-100%.

Even where new varieties are especially bred for resistance to disease, breakdown in resianstance to can occur rapidly and in some instances replacement varieties may be required every three years or so. in the Punjab the rice variety PR 106 which currently accounts for 80% of the area under cultivation, was considered resistant to white backed plant hoppper and stem rot when it was introduced in 1976. it has since become susceptible to both diseases, in addition to succmbing to rice leaf folder, pispa, stem borer and several other insect pests.